WHAT IS LITERATURE

1. What is literature

Etymologically, literature has to do with letters, the written as opposed to the spoken word, though not everything that is written down is literature.the latin word “litteratura”is derived from littera “(letter) which is the smallest element of alphabetical writing . the word text related to “textile” and can be translated be “fabric “

The word literature literally means “things made from letters”. literature may consist of texts based on factual information (journalistic or non-fiction), a category that may also include polimical works, biography, and reflective essays, or it may consist of texts based on imagination (such as fiction, poetry, or drama). Literature written in poetry emphasizes the aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language—such as sound, symbolism, and metre—to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of, ordinary meanings, while literature written in prose applies ordinary grammatical structure and the natural flow of speech. Literature can also be classified according to historical periods, genres, and political influences. While the concept of genre has broadened over the centuries, in general, a genre consists of artistic works that fall within a certain central theme; examples of genre include romance, mystery, crime, fantasy ,erotica and adventure among others

Literature is a term used to describe written or spoken material. The term is most commonly used to refer to words of the creative imagination including works of poetry, drama, fiction and non-fiction. Literature is the art of written works. It is the body of written works of a language period or culture. Literature is published in written works in a particular style or particular subject. Literature is the mirror of life. Our lives and all the subjects that are related to our lives can be the subject matters or elements of literature. So we can get the touch with our lives through literature.

Etymology, the latin work ‘literatura” is Derived from littera (letter) which is the smallest elemnt of alphabetical writing. The word text is related to “textile” and can be translated as “fabric”: just as singel threads form a fabric, so words and sentences form a meaningful and coherent text. The origins of the two central terms are, therefore, not of great help in defining literature or text. It is more enlightening to look at literature or text as cultural and historical phenomena and to investigate on conditions of their production and reception.

Underlyng literary production is certainly the human wish to leave behind a trace of oneself through creative expressions, which will exist detached from the individual and, therefore, outlast its creator.

The visual in literary texts, as well as the oral dimention, has been pushed into the background in the course of history. It is only in drama that the union between the spoken word and visual expression survives in a traditional literary genre, although this feature is not always immediately niticable. Methods of literaly and textual criticism are, therefore, frequently applied to the cinema and acoustic. Computer hypertexts and networks such as the Internet are the latest hybrids of the textual and various media

1. Genre, Text type, and Discourse

There are three genre of literary forms of epic, drama, or poetry. This categorization is slightly confusing as the epic occurs in verse, too, but is not classified as poetry. It is, in fact, a precursorof the modern novel because of its structural features such as plot, characterpresentation, and narrative perspektive. Although this old classifacation is still in use, the tendency today is to abandon the term “epic” and introduce “prose”, fiction, or pr4ose fiction for the relatively young literary forms of the novel and the short story.

1. Prose

Consists of those written within the common flow of conversation in sentence and paragraphs. Prose is a form of language which applies ordinary grammatical structure and natural flow of speech rather than rhythmic structure (as in traditional poetry).

1. Poetry

Comes from the Greek poiesis — with a broad meaning of a “making”, seen also in such terms as “hemopoiesis”; more narrowly, the making of poetry. It is refers to those expressions in verse, with measure and rhyme, line and stanza and has a more melodious tone.

1. Drama

Drama is the theatrical dialogue performed on stage, it consists of 5 acts.

The term text type has been introduced, under theinfluence of linguistics. Texts which cannot be categorized under the canonical genres of fiction, drama, and poetry are now often dealt with in the modern linguistics. Yhe term te3xt type refers to highly conventional written documents such as introduction manual, sermons, obituaries, advertising texts, catalogues, and scientific or scholarly writing,

Discourse is used as a term for any kind of classifiable linguistic expession. It has become a useful denotation for various linguistic conventions referring to areas of content and theme, for instance, one my speak of male or female, political, sexual,economic, philosophical and historical discourse. The clssifications for these form of linguistic expression are based on levels of contents.

In sum , genre is applied primaly to the three classical from of the literary tradtion , text type is a boarder term that is also applicale to “non – canonical “. Discourse is the boardest term , reffering to a variety of written and oral manifestations which common thematic r structural features .

1. Primary and secondary sources

Primary sources denote the traditional objects of analysis inliterary criticism , including texts from all literary genres, such as fiction ,poetry or drama.

The secondary source aplies to text such as article , books review, and notes. In term of consist , secondary of literature tries to uphold those standards of scholary practice , we have , over time , been established for scientifics discourse , including objectivity , documentation of sources

Five stages of second language acquisition

Five stages of second language acquisition

Proponents of second language acquisition theories, including Oliveri and Judie Haynes, another ESL teacher with 28 years of experience, identify five distinct stages of second language acquisition as originally espoused by linguist Stephen Krashen. These include the following:

• Silent/receptive: This stage may last from several hours to several months, depending on the individual learner. During this time, new language learners typically spend time learning vocabulary and practice pronouncing new words. While they may engage in self-talk, they don’t normally speak the language with any fluency or real understanding. This stage is controversial among language educators. Ana Lomba disagrees that second language learners are totally silent while they are in this first learning stage. Instead, Lomba states that “speech is fundamental in language acquisition” and learners excel in language acquisition when they apply what they learn as they learn it.
• Early production: This stage may last about six months, during which language learners typically acquire an understanding of up to 1,000 words. They may also learn to speak some words and begin forming short phrases, even though they may not be grammatically correct.
• Speech emergence: By this stage, learners typically acquire a vocabulary of up to 3,000 words, and learn to communicate by putting the words in short phrases, sentences, and questions. Again, they may not be grammatically correct, but this is an important stage during which learners gain greater comprehension and begin reading and writing in their second language.
• Intermediate fluency: At this stage, which may last for a year or more after speech emergence, learners typically have a vocabulary of as many as 6,000 words. They usually acquire the ability to communicate in writing and speech using more complex sentences. This crucial stage is also when learners begin actually thinking in their second language, which helps them gain more proficiency in speaking it.
• Continued language development/advanced fluency: It takes most learners at least two years to reach this stage, and then up to 10 years to achieve full mastery of the second language in all its complexities and nuances. Second language learners need ongoing opportunities to engage in discussions and express themselves in their new language, in order to maintain fluency in it.

The key to learning a new language and developing proficiency in speaking and writing that language is consistency and practice. A student must converse with others in the new language on a regular basis in order to grow their fluency and confidence. In addition, Haynes says it’s important for students to continue to work with a classroom teacher on specific content area related to the new language such as history, social studies and writing.

• 1. Language Acquisition Lecture #3Prepared by :T. Lama Albabtain
• 2. óStages of First Language Acquisition Lesson Objectives: 1. Name the main stages of first language acquisition. 2. Explain Pre-speech Stage. 3. Explain Babbling Stage. 4. Explain One word (Holophrastic) Stage. 5. Explain Combining words Stage 2
• 3. 1.óThe Main Stages Of First Language Acquisition. Pre-speech Stage. 2. Babbling Stage. 3. One word (Holophrastic) Stage. 4. Combining words Stage 3
• 4. infants learn to pay attentionó1.Pre-speech stage: to speech, pays attention to intonation and the rhythm of speech long Infants respond to speech more keenly thanóbefore they begin to speak. Speech elicits greater electrical activity in the leftóto other sounds. side of the 2 ómonth old infants brain than do other sounds. Experiment with microphone and nipple showed that infants suck more vigorously if the action triggers a human voice as opposed to music or other sounds 4
• 5. ó Infants can distinguish between /p/ and /b/ at three or four months (in an experiment with /ba/ played vs. /pa/, a two month infant showed awareness of the change). But children do not learn how to use these sounds until much later– around the second year or later 5
• 6. 2. Babbling stage: 6
• 7. ó2. Babbling stage: Begins at several months of age Characterized by indiscriminate utterance of speech sounds–ó4 to 6 Many native speech sounds may be absent– some are naturally harder to Very few consonant clusters and repeatedópronounce– /r/ /th/. syllables are common 7
• 8. 3. One word ( holophrastic ) stage: 8
• 9. ó3. One word ( holophrastic ) stage: Infants may utter their first word as early as nine months: usually mama, dada (these words resemble babbling). Deaf babies whose parents use sign language begin making their first word/gestures around eight months. This stage is characterized by the production of actual speech signs. Often the words are simplified: “du” for duck, “ba” for bottle. 9
• 10. When the child has acquired about 50 words heó develops regular Children tend to perceiveópronunciation patterns. more phonemic contrasts than they are able to produce themselves. 10
• 11. ó The first 50 words tend to be names of important persons, greetings, foods, highlights of the daily routine such as baths, ability to change their environment-give, take, go, up, down, open. The meaning of words may not correspond to that of adult language: overextension–.. bird may mean any flying object. 11
• 12. dog may mean any four legged creature 12
• 13. apple may mean any round object 13
• 14. bird may mean any flying object. 14
• 15. 4. Combining words stage: 15
• 16. óCombining words stage By two and a half years most children speak in sentences of several words–but their grammar is far from complete. This stage rapidly progresses in to what has been termed a fifth and final stage of language acquisition, the All hell breaks loose stage . By six the childs grammar approximates that of adults. Children learning any language seem to encode the same limited set of meanings in their first sentences: ownership– Daddys shoes; describing events– Me fall; locational relations– toy in box 16
• 17. Sentences usually two words. Children can repeató more complex sentences spoken by adults but cannot create them until . The ends of words learned more quickly: -raff for giraff,ólater. -mato for tomato, -narna for banana. 17
• 18. ó The rest of the acquisition of grammar is idiosyncratic– some children repeat more, others create more. Some children produce a great number of words before beginning to combine them into sentences. Others immediately begin to make sentences . There may be several individual routes to mastering ones native language. 18
• 19. óQuiz Mark true or false : 1- Infants can distinguish between /p/ and /b/ in the pre-speech stage . 2- Infants know the difference of phonological patterns . 3- Very few consonant clusters and repeated syllables are common in the babbling stage. 4- Infants may utter their first word in the Holophrastic stage . 5- In the combining words stage, most children speak in sentences of several 7-The first 6 words tend to be names of important persons,ówords greetings, foods, 19

Jenis-Jenis Model Pembelajaran Kooperatif

MACAM-MACAM MODEL PEMBELAJARAN

1. MODEL PEMBELAJARAN LANGSUNG
2. Pengertian Pembelajaran Langsung

Model pembelajaran langsung merupakan model pembelajaran yang lebih berpusat pada guru dan lebih mengutamakan strategi pembelajaran efektif guna memperluas informasi materi ajar.

2. Macam-Macam Pembelajaran Langsung

Adapun macam-macam pembelajaran langsung antara lain :

1          Ceramah, merupakan suatu cara penyampaian informasi dengan lisan dari seorang kepada sejumlah pendengar.

2          Praktek dan latihan, merupakan suatu teknik untuk membantu siswa agar dapat menghitung dengan cepat yaitu dengan banyak latihan dan mengerjakan soal.

3          Ekspositori, merupakan suatu cara penyampaian informasi yang mirip dengan ceramah, hanya saja frekuensi pembicara/guru lebih sedikit.

4          Demonstrasi, merupakan suatu cara penyampaian informasi yang mirip dengan ceramah dan ekspositori, hanya saja frekuensi pembicara/guru lebih sedikit dan siswa lebih banyak dilibatkan.

5          Questioner

6          Mencongak

3. Ciri-Ciri pada Pembelajaran Langsung

Model pembelajaran langsung mempunyai ciri-ciri, antara lain :

1. Proses pembelajaran didominasi oleh keaktifan guru.
2. Suasana kelas ditentukan oleh guru sebagai perancang kondisi.
3. Lebih mengutamakan keluasan materi ajar daripada proses terjadinya pembelajaran.
4. Materi ajar bersumber dari guru.
5. MODEL PEMBELAJARAN KOOPERATIF
6. Pengertian Pembelajaran Kooperatif

Model pembelajaran kooperatif dikembangkan untuk mencapai setidak­tidaknya tiga tujuan penting pembelajaran, yaitu hasil belajar akademik, penerimaan terhadap keragaman, dan pengembangan keterampilan sosial (Ibrahim, dkk, 2000:7).

Menurut Slavin (1997), pembelajaran kooperatif, merupakan model pembelajaran dengan siswa bekerja dalam kelompok yang memiliki kemampuan heterogen.

Pembelajaran kooperatif atau cooperative learning mengacu pada model pengajaran, siswa bekerja bersama dalam kelompok kecil saling membantu dalam belajar (Nur dan Wikandari, 2000:25).

Eggen dan Kauchak (1993: 319) mendefinisikan pembelajaran kooperatif sebagai sekumpulan strategi mengajar yang digunakan guru agar siswa saling membantu dalam mempelajari sesuatu.

2. Macam-Macam Model Pembelajaran Kooperatif

Ada 4 macam model pembelajaran kooperatif yang dikemukakan oleh Arends (2001), yaitu;

1. Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD)
2. Group Investigation
3. Jigsaw
4. Structural Approach

Sedangkan dua pendekatan lain yang dirancang untuk kelas-kelas rendah adalah;

1. Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) digunakan pada pembelajaran membaca dan menulis pada tingkatan 2-8 (setingkat TK sampai SD), dan
2. Team Accelerated Instruction (TAI) digunakan pada pembelajaran matematika untuk tingkat 3-6 (setingkat TK).

Model pembelajaran kooperatif ditandai dengan adanya struktur tugas, struktur tujuan, dan struktur penghargaan (Arends, 1997: 110-111).

1. Struktur tugas mengacu pada cara pengaturan pembelajaran dan jenis kegiatan siswa dalam kelas
2. Struktur tujuan, yaitu sejumlah kebutuhan yang ingin dicapai oleh siswa dan guru pada akhir pembelajaran atau saat siswa menyelesaikan pekerjaannya. Ada tiga macam struktur tujuan, yaitu:

1        Struktur tujuan individualistik

2        Struktur tujuan kompetitif

3        Struktur tujuan kooperatif

1. Struktur penghargaan kooperatif, yaitu penghargaan yang diberikan pada kelompok jika keberhasilan kelompok sebagai akibat keberhasilan bersama anggota kelompok.

3. Ciri-Ciri dan Tahapan pada Model Kooperatif

Menurut Arends (1997: 111), pembelajaran yang menggunakan model kooperatif memiliki ciri-ciri sebagai berikut:

• siswa bekerja dalam kelompok secara kooperatif untuk menyelesaikan materi belajar,
• kelompok dibentuk dari siswa yang memiliki kemampuan tinggi, sedang dan rendah,
• jika mungkin, anggota kelompok berasal dari ras, budaya, suku, jenis kelamin yang berbeda-beda,
• penghargaan lebih berorientasi pada kelompok dari pada individu.

Pembelajaran kooperatif dilaksanakan mengikuti tahapan-tahapan sebagai berikut (Ibrahim, M., dkk., 2000: 10)

1          Menyampaikan tujuan pembelajaran dan perlengkapan pembelajaran.

2          Menyampaikan informasi.

3          Mengorganisasikan siswa ke dalam kelompok-kelompok belajar.

4          Membantu siswa belajar dan bekerja dalam kelompok.

5          Evaluasi atau memberikan umpan balik.

6          Memberikan penghargaan.

1. MODEL PEMBELAJARAN BERDASARKAN MASALAH
2. Pengertian Pembelajaran Berdasarkan Masalah

Pembelajaran berdasarkan masalah merupakan pendekatan yang efektif untuk pengajaran proses berpikir tingkat tinggi. Pembelajaran ini membantu siswa untuk memproses informasi yang sudah jadi dalam benaknya dan menyusun pengetahuan mereka sendiri tentang dunia sosial dan sekitarnya. Pembelajaran ini cocok untuk mengembangkan pengetahuan dasar maupun kompleks (Ratumanan, 2002 : 123).

2. Macam-Macam Pembelajaran Berdasarkan Masalah

Macam-macam pembelajaran berdasarkan masalah Menurut Arends (1997), antara lain :

1          Pembelajaran berdasarkan proyek (project-based instruction), pendekatan pembelajaran yang memperkenankan siswa untuk bekerja mandiri dalam mengkonstruk pembelajarannya.

2          pembelajaran berdasarkan pengalaman (experience-based instruction), pendekatan pembelajaran yang memperkenankan siswa melakukan percobaan guna mendapatkan kesimpulan yang benar dan nyata.

3          belajar otentik (authentic learning), pendekatan pengajaran yang memperkenankan siswa mengembangkan ketrampilan berpikir dan memecahkan masalah yang penting dalam konsteks kehidupan nyata.

4          Pembelajaran bermakna (anchored instruction), pendekatan pembelajaran yang mengikuti metodologi sains dan memberi kesempatan untuk pembelajaran bermakna.

3. Ciri-Ciri dan Tahapan pada Pembelajaran Berdasarkan Masalah

ciri-ciri dari model pembelajaran berdasarkan masalah menurut Arends (2001 : 349), antara lain :

1          Pengajuan pertanyaan atau masalah.

2          Berfokus pada keterkaitan antar disiplin.

3          Penyelidikan autentik. Pembelajaran berdasarkan masalah mengharuskan siswa melakukan penyelidikan autentik untuk mencari penyelesaian nyata terhadap masalah nyata. Mereka harus menganalisis dan mendefinisikan masalah, mengembangkan hipotesis, dan membuat ramalan, mengumpul dan menganalisa informasi, melakukan eksperimen (jika diperlukan), membuat inferensi, dan merumuskan kesimpulan.

4          Menghasilkan produk dan memamerkannya.

5          Kolaborasi. Pembelajaran berdasarkan masalah dicirikan oleh siswa yang bekerja sama satu dengan yang lainnya, paling sering secara berpasangan atau dalam kelompok kecil. Bekerja sama memberikan motivasi untuk secara berkelanjutan terlibat dalam tugas-tugas kompleks dan memperbanyak peluang untuk berbagi inkuiri dan dialog dan untuk mengembangkan keterampilan sosial dan ketrampilan berfikir.

Pengajaran berdasarkan masalah terdiri dari 5 langkah utama yang dimulai dengan guru memperkenalkan siswa dengan suatu situasi masalah dan diakhiri dengan penyajian dan analisis hasil kerja siswa. Kelima langkah tersebut dijelaskan berdasarkan langkah-langkah berikut.

1          Tahap-1

Orientasi siswa pada masalah

Guru menjelaskan tujuan pembelajaran, menjelaskan logistik yang dibutuhkan, mengajukan fenomena atau demonstrasi atau cerita untuk memunculkan masalah, memotivasi siswa untuk terlibat dalam pemecahan

2          Tahap-2

Mengorganisasi siswa untuk belajar

Guru membantu siswa untuk mendefinisikan dan mengorganisasikan tugas belajar yang berhubungan dengan masalah tersebut.

3          Tahap-3

Membimbing penyelidikan individual maupun kelompok.

Guru mendorong siswa untuk mengumpulkan informasi yang sesuai, melaksanakan eksperimen, untuk mendapatkan penjelasan dan pemecahan masalah.

4          Tahap-4

Mengembangkan dan menyajikan hasil karya.

Guru membantu siswa dalam merencanakan dan menyiapkan karya yang sesuai seperti laporan, video, dan model serta membantu mereka untuk berbagi tugas dengan temannya.

5          Tahap-5

Menganalisis dan mengevaluasi proses pemecahan masalah.

Guru membantu siswa untuk melakukan refleksi atau evaluasi terhadap penyelidikan mereka dan proses-proses yang mereka gunakan. (Sumber: Ibrahim, 2000 : 13).

CONTOH MODEL PEMBELAJARAN LAGSUNG

• Orientasi. Sebelum menyajikan dan menjelaskan materi baru, akan sangat menolong siswa jika guru memberikan kerangka pelajaran dan orientasi terhadap materi yang akan disampaikan. Bentuk-bentuk orientasi dapat berupa: (1) kegiatan pendahuluan untuk mengetahui pengetahuan yang relevan dengan pengetahuan yang telah dimiliki siswa; (2) mendiskusikan atau menginformasikan tujuan pelajaran; (3) memberikan penjelasan/arahan mengenai kegiatan yang akan dilakukan; (4) menginformasikan materi/konsep yang akan digunakan dan kegiatan yang akan dilakukan selama pembelajaran; dan(5) menginformasikan kerangka pelajaran.
• Presentasi. Pada fase ini guru dapat menyajikan materi pelajaran baik berupa konsep-konsep maupun keterampilan. Penyajian materi dapat berupa: (1) penyajian materi dalam langkah-langkah kecil sehingga materi dapat dikuasai siswa dalam waktu relatif pendek;(2) pemberian contoh-contoh konsep; (3) pemodelan atau peragaan keterampilan dengan cara demonstrasi atau penjelasan langkah-langkah kerja terhadap tugas; dan (4) menjelaskan ulang hal-hal yang sulit.
• Latihan terstruktur. Pada fase ini guru memandu siswa untuk melakukan latihan-latihan. Peran guru yang penting dalam fase ini adalah memberikan umpan balik terhadap respon siswa dan memberikan penguatan terhadap respon siswa yang benar dan mengoreksi respon siswa yang salah.
• Latihan terbimbing. Pada fase ini guru memberikan kesempatan kepada siswa untuk berlatih konsep atau keterampilan. Latihan terbimbing ini baik juga digunakan oleh guru untuk mengases/menilai kemampuan siswa untuk melakukan tugasnya. Pada fase ini peran guru adalah memonitor dan memberikan bimbingan jika diperlukan.
• Latihan mandiri. Pada fase ini siswa melakukan kegiatan latihan secara mandiri, fase ini dapat dilalui siswa jika telah menguasai tahap-tahap pengerjaan tugas 85-90% dalam fase bimbingan latihan.